A Brief History of Arabic Literature: Early Islamic Period

A Brief History of Arabic Literature: Early Islamic Period

(622 A D – 661 AD)

 

Menonim Menonimus

 

 

A Brief History of Arabic Literature: Early Islamic Period (622 AD- 661 AD) by Menonim Menonimus. Internet Edition.

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A Brief History of Arabic Literature-Early Islamic Period

 

Preface

I love to read and write and so once I took to reading some Arabic books, especially through English translation (because my hold on the Arabic Language is little). Since writing is a means of expressing my feelings, thoughts and ideas, I soon wrote out the book “A Brief History of Arabic Literature: Pre-Islamic Period (500 AD -622 AD)”. It was my first book on the History of Arabic literature and the readers accepted the book warmly and favourably. Being encouraged by my readers, I wrote my second book on Arabic literature entitled ”A Brief History of Arabic Literature, Early Islamic Period (622 AD-661 AD)”. Here I candidly admit my weakness in that this book is by no means an exhaustive one, but a brief overview. And although it is concise, the book reflects my views on the Arabic language and literature that I formed while reading various Arabic texts.

I hope that this book will be helpful for those who want to get acquainted with Arabic literature in a hurry.

Menonim Menonimus

Santi Kanan

January 2022 English Year

 

Contents 

Chapter 1

Source of Early Arabic Literature: The Qur’an          

Chapter 2

Source of Early Arabic Literature: Hadith

Chapter 3

Development of Arabic Poetry During the Early Islamic Period

Chapter- 4

Characteristics of Arabic Poetry of the Early Islamic Period

Chapter- 5

Characteristics of Arabic Prose of the Early Islamic Period

Chapter- 6

Prominent Arabic Poets of the Early Islamic Period

Chapter- 7

Arabic Prose Literature in the Early Islamic Period

Chapter- 8

Individuals who contributed to the development of Arabic prose literature in the early Islamic period

A Brief History of Arabic Literature: Early Islamic Period

A Brief History of Arabic Literature Early-Islamic Period

(622 A D-661 AD)

 

 

Chapter-1

Source of Early Arabic Literature: The Qur’an 

The Early Islamic Period refers to the period from 622 AD to 661 AD. In other words to say it began with the migration of Prophet Muhammad from Mecca to Median in 622 AD and ended with the assassination of Hazarat Ali, the fourth and last rightful Caliph of the Islamic Empire. During this period, the Arabic language and literature gained new strength, momentum, and philosophy. With the advent of Islam, the influence of the traditional Arabic language and literature gradually declined and a new tradition began which we can call the Islamic tradition. The literary sources of the early Islamic period are the Qur’an, Hadith, Qur’anic commentary, Fiqh, history, poetry and prose literature. Among these, the Qur’an and Hadith are considered to be the main sources. The Qur’an as a source of early Arabic literature is briefly discussed below.

Introduction to the Qur’an

The Qur’an is the last divine book. This was revealed to the last Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). It contains all the codes (principles) of life necessary for mankind to lead a peaceful life. People who live according to its guidelines are called ‘Muslims’ The Qur’an was first written and preserved by Allah on an iron tablet and later revealed to Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) part by part. 

The revelation of the Qur’an 

The Qur’an began to be revealed to the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) in 610 AD in the month of Ramadhan at the Heera Cave, three miles away from Mecca. Its revelation ended on June 8, 632 AD. In total, the Qur’an took 22 years, 2 months and 22 days to be revealed in its entirety. The Qur’an contains a total of 114 Surahs (chapters) and 6,666 verses (sentences). Of the 114 Surahs of the Qur’an, 93 were revealed in Mecca in 13 years and the remaining 23 were revealed in Medina. The Surahs revealed in Mecca are called Makki Surahs and the Surahs revealed in Medina are called Medini Surahs. The first verse of Surah Al-Alaq was the first revealed verse of the Qur’an.

The Holy Qur’an was revealed to Allah’s last Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) in the following four ways: 

(a) Revelation through the Angel Jibril

(b) Revelation through inspiration.

(c) Revelation through dreams.

(d) Revelation as spoken words behind a veil.

The Prophet immediately memorized the messages he received from Allah and made his Companions memorize them. In addition, the Prophet had forty-four writers (scribblers) who wrote down the messages on animal bones, palm leaves, animal skins, flat stones, etc. as taught by the Prophet.

The revelation of the Qur’an was completed 80 days before the death of the Prophet. The Qur’an was not compiled in book form during the lifetime of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) as it was revealed in fragments.

Compilation and Preservation of the Qur’an

On June 8, 632 CE, the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) died. He was succeeded by Hazrat Abu Bakr as the Caliph of Medina. After the death of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), chaos began again among the Arabs. Some Muslims left Islam and returned to paganism. Some deviated from the basic principles of Islam. On the other hand, a few people claim to be prophets. Abu Bakr (may Allah be pleased with him) took a very strict policy against them. This led to several rebellions and battles. One of those battles was the Battle of Yamama. This battle took place with the hypocritical prophet Musaylima. The Caliph sent a huge force against the rebels under the command of Khalid bin Walid. This battle was very terrible and bloody. About 1200 (twelve hundred) soldiers of Islam were killed in the battle. Most of them were ‘Hafiz of the Qur’an’ (Qur’an memorizers). Hazarat Umar was alarmed to see the Hafiz of the Qur’an killed and advised the Caliph Abu Bakr to collect the scattered fragments of the Qur’an and compile them in a book form. At first, Abu Bakr refused to do this and said that he could not do what the Prophet had not done. Later, Abu Bakr agreed to compile the Qur’an and appointed Zayd ibn Thabit, a prominent Ansari, to collect the scattered Surahs of the Qur’an and compile them on the basis of trust.

Zayd ibn Thabit followed Abu Bakr’s instructions and began to do this with great caution. He met the Hafizes of the Qur’an, listened to their recitations, collected the Surahs of the Qur’an written by various people, and after much research, he compiled the Holy Qur’an in book form in a completely accurate and perfect manner. He completed the compilation and handed it over to the Caliph Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA). A few days after this work was completed, Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) died. Then Hazrat Umar (RA) was elected the Caliph of the Islamic Empire and the compiled Quran was placed under his care. 

Hazarat Umar ruled the Islamic Empire for ten years and was martyred. The Qur’an was later entrusted to his daughter Hafsa (who was one of the wives of the Prophet Muhammad). During the reign of Hazrat Umar, the Islamic Empire expanded considerably and Islam spread

Hazarat Uthman succeeded Hazarat Umar as the third Caliph of the Islamic Empire. Disagreements arose among the newly initiated Muslims over the ’tilwat’ (recitation) of the Qur’an. Hazarat Uthman then collected a copy of the Quran which was in the custody of Hazarat Hafsa to put an end to this controversy and commissioned Zayd bin Thabit to produce several copies of the compiled Qur’an. ‘Abdullah ibn Zubayr, Sa’id ibn al-‘Asha and ‘Abdur-Rahman ibn Haris assisted Thabit in this work. If there was any disagreement about a verse of the Qur’an, it was ordered to be recorded in the Quraysh dialect. As a result of their sincere efforts, six copies of the Qur’an were produced in 651 AD and sent to four centers of the Muslim world at the time. Hazarat Uthman was given the title of ‘Jami’ul Qur’an’ (Preserver of the Qur’an) for his initiative.

The Holy Qur’an as a Literary Source

The Qur’an occupies an unparalleled place in the treasury of Arabic literature. Its language is a wonderful combination of prose and verse. It was written in a manner that was unprecedented and incomparable. Its language-word choice, ornamentation, etc. had a profound influence on the Arabic language and literature of the time and gave a new impetus to the Arabic language and literature by giving it stability and universality. It is considered the main source of the Arabic language and literature of the Islamic period. The Qur’an contains the religious instructions of Islam, information about the major prophets of the past, and the social, political, and moral aspects of the Arabs of that time.

The Influence of the Qur’an on the Arabic Language

Qur’an is a linguistically incomparable book. Its influence on the Arabic language is as powerful and revolutionary as it is on the religion. The following is a brief discussion of the influence of the Qur’an on the Arabic language:

(a) The language of the Qur’an is a unique combination of prose and verse. It has not only given a balance to Arabic prose but also united the various branches of the Arabic language and made it universal. As a result, Arabic has become one of the most prestigious languages ​​in the world today.

(b) The Qur’an has reformed Arabic prose and given it eloquence and simplicity. 

(c) The Qur’an has greatly enriched the vocabulary of the Arabic language by creating new words, phrases, etc. and giving new meanings to old words.

(d) It is because of the Qur’an that the Arabic language has gained a universal form today. At Present, Arabic is the official language of about 26 countries in the world. The main reason for this is that it is the language of the holy book of the Muslims.

(e) Many non-Muslims are also learning Arabic with great interest to understand the basic messages of influential Islam in the original Arabic language. As a result, the status of the Arabic language has increased many times over.

(f) Before the revelation of the Qur’an, poetry had a significant influence in Arabic and there was almost no prose literature. However, after the revelation of the Qur’an, the influence of poetry in Arabic gradually declined and the influence of prose increased rapidly. As a result, the aspect of human knowledge became easier and simpler. 

The Holy Qur’an’s Influence on Arabic Literature

The Holy Qur’an, the main religious textbook of Islam, has not only provided the world with a pure religion but has also had a powerful and revolutionary influence on Arabic literature. The following is a brief discussion of the influence of the Qur’an on Arabic literature:

(a) The Qur’an is the main book of Islam. This is a compulsory book of study for Muslims. Therefore, each word requires proper meaning, interpretation, analysis, etc. and to meet this need, grammar, dictionaries, rhetoric, etc. of the Arabic language were formulated. As a result, the Arabic language and literature have acquired a stable format.

(b) Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) is the founder of Islam and the Holy Book of this religion, the Qur’an, was revealed to him. Therefore, Muslims have to follow the biography, philosophy of life, commandments, etc. of their religious leader. In addition, the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) reflected the words of the Qur’an in his life. Therefore, Muslim scholars have compiled the books of Hadith by collecting the sayings of the Prophet Muhammad. The language of the hadiths was pure Arabic. As a result, the Arabic language and literature have improved considerably through the books of Hadith. 

(c) The Holy Qur’an contains religious rules and commandments as well as many descriptions of the previous prophets in various contexts. Later, some Muslim scholars were encouraged to write biographies of the previous prophets. Resultantly new genres of literature such as biography and history came into existence and thus the Arabic language and literature became rich.

(d) The books of Tafseer (explanation) of the Qur’an were written to properly understand the Qur’an and later the scriptures of Fiqh were created as a result of the efforts of several Imams. Thus, the treasury of Arabic literature was greatly strengthened.

(e) Hajj is one of the five pillars of Islam. Muslims from all over the world gather in the holy city of Mecca every year to perform the Hajj. It becomes necessary for them to know about the routes, localities, etc. in order to perform Hajj from distant places to Mecca. Geography was created to meet this need.

(f) In addition to containing all the religious, moral, and necessary laws for mankind, the Qur’an also contains some accurate conclusions about science. Later, these scientific signs in the Qur’an were discussed. As a result, other branches of human knowledge such as chemistry, physics, astronomy, algebra, medicine, etc. developed considerably and various books were written on these subjects. Thus Arabic language, literature, and various branches of science developed extensively.

(g) After the revelation of the Qur’an, the tradition of Arabic poetry also changed. Pre-Islamic Arabic poetry was often obscene. However, after the revelation of the Qur’an, it influenced Arabic poetry and gave decency, clarity of language, and proper use of words. The content of poetry is also clearly influenced by Islamic philosophy. 

(h) The Arabic script was incomplete until the revelation of the Qur’an. After the revelation of the Qur’an, its influence also reformed the Arabic script. Some signs (harakat) are added to the Arabic language to make the reading of the Qur’an and the pronunciation of words pure and universal. This has simplified the Arabic language and thus it became easier for the Arabic language to become one of the most prestigious languages ​​in the world.

Thus, the Qur’an has had an unprecedented influence on the Arabic language and literature.

The Qur’an’s Influence on Various Fields of Science

Although the Qur’an is primarily a religious book, it also contains brief accounts of the major prophets of the past, various events in their lives, descriptions of various examples of Allah’s glory, and some scientific conclusions. Later, deep thought and research on these subjects of the Qur’an began, resulting in the birth of various branches of science. The influences of the Qur’an on various branches of science are briefly discussed below. 

Phonology: The phonetics of Arabic was influenced by the Qur’an. The seven methods or tunes are permissible for the study or recitation of the Holy Quran. The Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said, “The Qur’an has been revealed in seven tunes, and recite it in the melody that you find easiest. The word ‘ahruf’ indicates variations in pronunciation and vowels. Muslim scholars gave birth to phonetics in Arabic to explain these variations. 

Rhyme: The Qur’an is written in rhyme. There are also differences in rhythm from verse to verse. Therefore, rhyme is born in Arabic to ensure that there is no distortion of the meaning when reading it correctly. Abul Aswad Addawali gave birth to the science of Arabic rhythm by analyzing the rhythm of the Qur’an.

Miscellaneous Sciences: As mentioned earlier, there are some scientific conclusions in the Quran. For example, the Qur’an contains conclusions about embryology, hydrology, astronomy, black holes, the theory of resonance etc. There is no explanation for these conclusions in the Qur’an, but the conclusions inspired thoughtful individuals to research them. As a result, extensive research in various fields of science took place in the Islamic countries during the Abbasid period, and consequently, various branches of Science such as chemistry, mathematics, physics, astronomy, etc. were born.

Philosophy: The Qur’an also had a significant influence on the development and spread of philosophy. Al-Ghazzali, for example, wrote several valuable works on various Quranic topics with philosophical perspectives. Similarly, philosophical books on the universal relevance of the basic principles of the Qur’an have been written in different parts of the world. Today’s philosophy is incomplete without a discussion of Islamic philosophy based on the Qur’an.

Thus, the Qur’an, despite being a religious book, has made a significant contribution to the advancement of modern science. Research is still being conducted around the world on various subjects mentioned in the Qur’an. Therefore, the Qur’an can be considered to be a precious book of inspiration for scientific research by thoughtful people.

Historical Value of the Qur’an

The Qur’an is primarily a religious book. It is neither a book of history nor a book of science. However, Allah has used many examples, quotations, hints, contexts, etc. from the pages of history to explain various issues such as religious rules, human behaviour, the benefits of obeying Allah’s commandments, the consequences of disobedience, etc. As a result, much of history is included in the Qur’an. The following is an assessment of the Qur’an as a book of history.

First, in the Qur’an, we find detailed accounts of the birth and lives of the first human being, Adam (AS), and the first woman, Eve, their disobedience to Allah’s commands, and the consequences of their disobedience

Secondly, the Qur’an tells the story of Abel and Cain, the sons of Adam, the killing of Abel by Cain, the trial of him by his father Adam, etc.

Thirdly, the Holy Qur’an is the basis of historical stories such as the story of the Great Flood in the days of Prophet Noah, the tragic consequences of the unbelieving servants of Allah who died in the flood, and the consequences of the Prophet’s disobedient wife.

Fourthly, the Qur’an gives a detailed description of the sins of his people in the time of Prophet Lut (AS) and the consequences of their sins.

Fifthly, the Qur’an contains details of the social and religious aspects of the time of Prophet Ibrahim (AS) and his son Ishmael (AS), as well as the details of the sacrifices of the two prophets, the reconstruction of the Kaaba by them etc.

Sixth, the Qur’an contains a detailed description of Prophet Moses (pbuh), his brother Aaron, Pharaoh and the Jewish nation. 

Seventh, the Qur’an contains the solution to the mystery of the birth and death of the Prophet Jesus (pbuh). In addition, the Qur’an contains references to the last Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), the behavior of the Arabs of his time, their betrayals and battles with the Prophet. 

In addition, the Qur’an contains many stories and parables as warnings to mankind in a concise form.

In short, although the Qur’an is not a history book, we can learn many things about history from reading the Qur’an. Later, many biographical books have been written based on various stories in the Qur’an. The Qur’an also provides many sources for the history of mankind today.

Therefore, although the Qur’an is primarily a religious book, it can also be considered to be a brief history of mankind due to its many historical stories and details. 0 0 0.

A Brief History of Arabic Literature: Early Islamic Period 

Chapter-2

Source of Early Arabic Literature: Hadith

Next only to the Qur’an, the books of Hadith are one of the strongest and most significant sources of Arabic language and literature of the early Islamic period. ‘Hadith’ refers to everything said, done and approved by the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). In other words, the account of the life of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), his letters to his representatives in various places and prominent persons at home and abroad, the account of the various persons who visited him, friends, companions, relatives and the account of various battles fought by Muhammad etc. are also included in the books of Hadith. Like the Qur’an, the basic book of Islam, the books of Hadith are considered equally important and dignified. Therefore, Muslims study the Qur’an as well as the Hadith books with much importance. 

The life of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) was guided by the instructions of the Qur’an. Therefore, the real reflection of the laws addressed to mankind by Allah through the Qur’an occurred in the life of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). Therefore, the Prophet is also called the practical Qur’an. The matters related to religion that were not clearly explained in the Qur’an were explained by the Prophet Muhammad to his followers in his own language. All those explanations are included in the Hadith books. Therefore, studying the books of Hadith makes the subjects of the Qur’an very easy and comprehensible.

During the lifetime of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), some people began to write down his words, way of life, solutions to various real-life problems, advices given to his followers etc., but the Prophet prevented them from writing them down. This was because the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) was afraid that people might later combine these with the verses of the Qur’an and thus destroy the originality of the Qur’an. But his beloved companions and those who came into his presence listened to his sayings, discussions, advices etc. with much attention and bore them in memory. 

After the death of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), his sayings began to be forgotten as time went on. The companions of the prophets also died. As a result, the hadiths of the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) were almost on the verge of loss. In this context, about two hundred years after the death of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), some Islamic scholars traveled to different countries of the Islamic Empire, met people who knew Hadiths and collected the Hadiths from them. Among such individuals there were Imam Muhammad ibn Ismail al-Bukhari, Abul Hasan Muslim al-Nishapuri, Abu Dawud Sulayman, Abu ‘Isa Muhammad Tirmidhi, Abu ‘Abdur Rahman ibn Sinan, Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Yazid al-Majah, and a few others. The following is a brief discussion of the books of Hadith collected and compiled by these scholars.

Bukhari Sharif

The most famous and widely discussed book of Hadith is Bukhari Sharif. This book was compiled by a scholar named Muhammad ibn Ismail al-Bukhari (810-870 AD). He was born into an educated family in the city of Bukhara, then in Khorasan (now Uzbekistan). His father’s name was Ismail bin Ibrahim. He was an Islamic scholar. At an early age, he taught his son Muhammad ibn Ismail the Qur’an and Hadith. Ibn Ismail began his studies of Hadith at the age of eleven and became a scholar of Hadith at the age of sixteen. He traveled to Damascus, Egypt, Basra and other Muslim countries to learn more about Hadiths and met people who knew Hadiths in those countries and collected 60,000 Hadith from them. He later examined their authenticity and compiled only 7,225 hadiths from them into a book. This book is called ‘Bukhari Sharif’ after his name. The author’s Bukhari Sharif is the first book of Hadith. The hadiths contained in the book are considered authentic. Therefore, the Bukhari Sharif is given importance after the Qur’an.

Muslim Sharif 

Muslim Sharif is the second most popular book of Hadith. This book was compiled by a Muslim scholar named Abul Hasan Muslim al-Nishapuri (815-875 AD). He is known as Imam Nisapuri. He was born in the city of Nisapur in Khorasan (modern Iran). He began studying Hadith from his father at the age of eighteen. He then went to Syria, Iraq,  and Egypt for further studies and worked hard to meet people who knew hadiths in those places and collected about 30,000 hadiths. He later selected them on the basis of purity and compiled 9,200 hadiths into a book. The book of Hadith he compiled is called ‘Muslim Sharif’ after his name. He was a contemporary of Imam Bukhari. It is second only to Bukhari Sharif in terms of purity.

Abu Dawud Sharif

Abu Dawud Sharif is the third most famous book of Hadith. It was compiled by a Muslim scholar named Abu Dawud Sulaiman al-Chizistani (818-889). He was born in the city of Basra in Chizistan. He was very curious from an early age and to acquire Islamic knowledge he visited educational institutions in various places and met many people who knew Hadith and collected 50,000 Hadiths. He later considered their reliability and prepared a collection of 4,800 hadiths. After his name, this collection of hadith is called ‘Abu Dawud Sharif’

Tirmidhi Sharif

Tirmidhi Sharif is the fourth most popular book of Hadith. This was compiled by a scholar named Abu ‘Isa Muhammad al-Tirmidhi (824-892). He was born in Tirmiz, Uzbekistan. He became proficient in the Qur’an, Arabic grammar and Hadith at an early age and traveled to various places to learn more about Hadith. During his travels, he met people who knew hadith and collected about 50,000 hadiths from them and later compiled a book of 1,600 hadiths. The book of Hadith he compiled is called ‘Tirmidhi Sharif’ after his name. 

Nisai

One of the reliable sources of the early Islamic language and literature is the hadith book entitled ‘Nisai’.  It was compiled by Abu Abdur Rahman Ahmad ibn Sinan (829-915 AD). He was born in the city of Nasa in present-day Turkmenistan. He received his primary education in his native place and left home at the age of fifteen to seek knowledge and traveled to Iraq, Kufa, Hijaz, Syria and Egypt, and acquired considerable knowledge of the Qur’an and Hadith. He was also a good orator and gave lectures on Islamic philosophy at various places. During his travels, he collected many hadiths and compiled 4,482 hadiths selecting from them on the basis of reliability. He then traveled to various places and arrived in Damascus where he died in 915 AD.

Ibn Majah

Ibn Majah is the sixth book of Hadith in Arabic. This was compiled by Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Zayd al-Majah (824-887), an Islamic scholar. He was born in Qazwin, Iran. He became a scholar of the Qur’an at an early age and then he traveled to Iraq, Mecca, and Egypt to collect Hadith. He collected many hadiths but produced a collection of only 4,000 hadiths in consideration of purity. The book of Hadith he compiled is called ‘Ibn Majah’ after his name.

The six books of hadiths discussed above are collectively called ‘Siha Sittah’ (pure books of hadith). Muslims rank these six books of Hadith after the Qur’an. 

In addition to these six books of Hadith, there are several other minor books of Hadith such as al-Muttah, Sunan al-Darami, Masabi al-Sunnah, Wali al-Din Tibrizi, etc. However, the hadiths contained in these books are considered weak hadiths.

The Influences of the Hadith on Religion, Language, Literature, Culture, Politics, Sociology etc.

Hadith is the second sourcebook of Islam. It is second only to the Koran. Its influence is evident in religion, language, literature, culture, politics and sociology. The following is a brief discussion of the influences of the books of Hadith in various aspects:

First, the books of Hadith help us understand, interpret, comprehend and explain the meaning of the Qur’an. It can also be called the practical book of the Qur’an. This is because the language of the Qur’an is relatively more difficult than the language of the Hadith. The complex or mysterious sayings of the Qur’an were explained by the Prophet to his Companions in simple language and since they are collected in the Hadith, the Qur’an can be understood very easily by studying them. For example, the Qur’an mentions prayer, fasting, and zakat, but there is no clear explanation of how to observe them. The Prophet explained the practical aspects of these to his followers through his practice which are contained in the books of Hadith. Therefore, many aspects of Islam can be clearly understood by reading the books of Hadith.

Secondly, after the death of the Prophet, the scope of the Muslim society established by the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) increased significantly during the reign of the Caliphs. As a result, the rulers faced various political and administrative problems. The rulers failed to solve all those problems through the Qur’an alone. Then they came up with the solutions to those problems in the light of the hadith. Even today, if a problem cannot be solved from the Qur’an, it can be easily solved with the help of Hadith.

Thirdly, the books of Hadith do not contain explanations only on religious matters, it also contains the works of the Prophet, the people associated with him, the Companions, the commands and prohibitions given by the Prophet to the Companions at different times, the wars fought by the Prophet, etc. Therefore, the Hadiths give us a clear idea of ​​the contemporary era of the Prophet, as well as of the major events of that time. Therefore, the hadith books also fill the gap in the history books of the period.

Fourth, the language of hadith has had an unprecedented impact on the Arabic language and literature. Before the advent of Islam, there was almost no prose literature in Arabic. Since the hadiths are written in prose, they have had a revolutionary impact on the development of Arabic prose. The simplicity and vividness of the language of the Hadith give the Arabic language a well-organized form. It has elevated the Arabic language to a dignified language by providing stability in terms of Arabic words, word formation and the meaning of words.

Fifthly, many biographical books have been written later based on the accounts of the Prophet’s Companions preserved in the books of Hadith. As a result, Arabic literature has been enriched.

Sixth, history literature has been written in later periods based on the wars and conflicts between Muslims and non-Muslims described in the Hadith.

Seventh, although the Qur’an was revealed to the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), the Qur’an is not a biography of the Prophet. It does not tell us much about the personal life of the Prophet. However, since the books of Hadith contain every aspect of the life of the Prophet, one can learn about the social life, political life, moral life, religious life, etc. of the Prophet. This means that the complete biography of the Prophet can be learned by reading the books of Hadith.

The above discussion shows that the books of Hadith are of immense importance in the Islamic world from the perspective of religion, language and literature. 0 0 0.

A Brief History of Arabic Literature: Early Islamic Period

Chapter-3

Development of Arabic Poetry During the Early Islamic Period

‘Poetry’ is the eldest, most complex, polymorphic, controversial, and widely criticized of all branches of literature. Poetry dominated the empire of world literature for centuries before the introduction of prose literature. But no one has ever come up with a consensus definition of what ‘poetry’ is. Different scholars have defined poetry in different ways, but one definition does not agree with the other. However, by ‘poetry’ we mean a work that contains an ornate and emotional description of an event, feeling or subject.

Like most languages ​​of the world, Arabic has a rich store of poetry. There is no exact date of the beginning of Arabic poetry, but there is evidence that poetry in Arabic was widespread in the pre-Islamic period, from the fifth century onwards. The history of Arabic poetry is believed to have begun in the pre-Islamic period, as no Arabic literature before the fifth century has survived, although poetry probably began in Arabic earlier.

Scholars estimate that between the early fifth century AD and 622 AD, more than two hundred poets were born in Arabia and that they brought Arabic poetry to a high level of development. 

From 610 AD, the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) was declared the Messenger of Allah and the Qur’an began to be revealed to him. However, the people of Mecca refused to accept the Islam he preached and began to persecute him in various ways. When the opposition to Islam and the persecution of the Prophet reached its climax, the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) migrated from Mecca to Medina in 622 AD. The locals of Medina warmly welcomed the Prophet and accepted his religion. From then on, the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) began to preach Islam openly and it spread rapidly. The main book of this religion is called the ‘Qur’an’. With the revelation of the Qur’an, Arab religious life, social life, political life, etc., as well as literary trends began to change. The pre-Islamic era was considered to come to an end and the Islamic era began with the migration of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) to Medina in 622 CE. The first forty years of the Islamic era, from 622 AD to 661 AD, are called the ‘Early Islamic Period’. Arabic literature also began to change during this period. The major poets of this period were Nabigha al-Ju’di, Hasan bin Thabit, al-Khansa, al-Hutayya, Abu Zubayr al-Hujli, ‘Amr ibn Madikarib, etc. These poets were born in the pre-Islamic period and continued to practice poetry till the end of the early Islamic period. These poets who wrote poetry in both eras are called ‘Mukhadrim Poets’ These Mukhadrim poets could not completely come from the pre-Islamic poetic genre as they started their poetry in the pre-Islamic era. Nevertheless, they were spontaneously influenced by the Qur’an and Hadith, i.e. Islamic philosophy, which led to some changes in the content, language and style of Arabic poetry.

The main themes of the poems of the Mukhadrim poets were war, love, pride, condemnation, grief, nature, animals, etc.

These characteristics were also present in the poetry of the pre-Islamic period, but the Mukhadrim poets brought some changes in these matters. For example, they avoided conventional imagery as much as possible and created new imagery. There is no linguistic ambiguity in their poems. They were free from attractive and obscene descriptions of the female body. They emphasized the use of simple and straightforward words.

In addition to the above-mentioned poets, many other poets were born during the early Islamic period and they also contributed to the advancement of Arabic poetry.

In conclusion, it is to say that Arabic poets in the early Islamic period added Islamic philosophy and psychology to the tradition of Pre-Islamic Arabic poetry and expanded the scope of Arabic poetry and simplified language and imagery. 0 0 0.

A Brief History of Arabic Literature: Early Islamic Period

Chapter-4

Characteristics of Arabic Poetry of the Early Islamic Period

The period from the time of the Prophet Muhammad’s migration from Mecca to Medina to the reign of the rightly guided Caliphs, i.e. from 622 AD to 661 AD, is called the ‘Early Islamic Period’ in Arabic literature. It is noteworthy that Arabic poetry underwent unprecedented development during the pre-Islamic period (500 AD to 622 AD) and this trend continued during the early Islamic period. However, there were some changes in content, language and style. The major poets of this period were Nabigha al-Ju’di, Hasan bin Thabit, ‘Amor ibn Madikarib, al-Hutayya, Abu Zubayr, al-Hujli, ‘Amor Khansa, etc. These poets were born in the pre-Islamic period and continued to practice poetry in the early Islamic period. They are called ‘Mukhadrim poets’ because they were poets of both eras (Pre-Islamic Era and Early Islamic Era). The word ‘Mukhadrim’ means a mixed race or clan. In addition to the existence of the characteristics of pre-Islamic poetry in their poems, most Mukhadrim poets added Islamic philosophy to their poetry and their imagery and style became temperate. Not all the poems of the poets of the early Islamic period are preserved as most of their poems were composed orally and they made no effort to preserve them. In the late Umayyad and early Abbasid periods, some lovers of literature collected some poems from the mouth of people and prepared several anthologies. A study of the poems preserved in those collections shows that the poems of the poets of the early Islamic period, like those of the pre-Islamic period, reflect all the social, political, cultural, and religious aspects of that time. Their poems also had a variety of themes such as love, war, pride, condemnation, grief, nature, animals, etc. The following are the main characteristics of Arabic poetry of the early Islamic period:

War

A common theme in Arabic poetry of the early Islamic period is war. For example, the poems of ‘Amr bin Ma’di Karib, Ka’b bin Zuhair, al-Hutayya, etc. describe the wars between Muslims and anti-Muslim pagans of that period. There are also stories of wars with various kingdoms during the reign of the Khelafaye Rashedin. ‘Amr bin Ma’di Karibay wrote in a poem:

Praise and Eulogy

Another major feature of early Islamic poetry is the praise and eulogy of leading figures of that time. In some of al-Hutayya’s poems, he praised those who helped him or showed sympathy for him. He wrote poems praising leading figures such as Abu Musa al-Ansari, al-Waleed bin Uqba, Syed bin al-Ash, and Uyna bin Hisn and won their sympathy and reward.

One of the most famous poems of Ka’b bin Zuhair is ‘Banat Suwad’ (Qasida). He wrote the poem in praise of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). The following lines are quoted as examples:

In the last lines of this poem, he praises the Companions of the Prophet and the Mujahideen. The poem is an incomparable poem of praise in the whole range of Early  Islamic Arabic poetry in terms of the excellence of subject matter, fluency of description, depth of emotion, beauty of language, sweetness of rhythm, strategy in poetic skill, wording, religious frenzy and expression of meaning.

Love

The theme of love occupies a special place in Arabic poetry. There are many references to love in the poetry of the early Islamic period as in the poetry of the pre-Islamic period. For example, Hasan bin Thabit, before his conversion to Islam, wrote many love poems describing the charming beauty of women. 

Al Hutyaiya also wrote some love poems. His love poems contain fascinating poetic descriptions of the female body. His poems contain alluring accounts of the parts of the female body such as the neck, thighs, nose, ears, hair, face, smile, etc. His imageries are innovative and fascinating.

Some of the poems of ‘Amr ibn Ma’di al-Karib were also about love. There is ample account of the beauty of the female body in his poetry but he does not praise it. He was always polite when he wrote about women.

There is also the theme of love in the poetry of Ka’b bin Zuhair. He begins his love poem with a description of the abandoned home of his beloved and then describes her physical beauty. He describes his beloved as a trickster, a deceiver, and a breaker of promises. In a poem he writes:

Animals

Animals are also described in the poetry of the early Islamic period as they are found in the poetry of the pre-Islamic period. For example, many of Kab bin Zuhair’s poems mention camels, horses, donkeys, etc. In a poem he describes the camel he rode as follows:

Mourning

Another frequent theme of early Islamic poetry is mourning (elegy) composed on the death of a loved one.

Hasan bin Thabit composed many poems lementing the martyred warriors in the battles of Badr and Uhud. He also wrote a long poem mourning the death of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). He also composed elegies on Hazrat Uthman (RA), Hazrat Umar (RA), Hamza bin Abdul Muttalib and others.

Abu Zuhair al-Huzli also wrote many mourning poems for his five sons who died of a plague epidemic. In one of his mourning poems, he wrote:

Al Khanacha also composed several elegiac poems mourning his four sons who were killed in the Battle of Qasediya.

Satire

Satire occupies a special part of Arabic poetry of the early Islamic period. Al Hutaya took revenge on those who hated him by composing satire on them. His satirical poetry did not exclude anyone: his acquaintances, strangers, relatives, or non-relatives. He also wrote poems condemning his own appearance. In a poem he says:

Similarly, the poets such as Hasan bin Thabit and Abu Mihzan Sakafi also wrote poems satirizing the enemies and opponents of Islam. 

Nature

The theme of nature also occupies a significant place in the poetry of the early Islamic period. For example, al-Huzli’s poetry describes the beauty of nature. In one poem, he gives a wonderful poetic description of the clouds. Another poem describes the collection of honey by bees.

Similarly, the poems of Ma’di Karib, Abu al-Zohair, etc. depict the roughness of the desert and the cruelty of nature.

Islamic Philosophy

A notable and admirable feature of the poetry of the early Islamic period is Islamic philosophy. The poets of this period were influenced by the philosophy of Islam preached by the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him),  and this was reflected in their poetry. Hasan bin Thabit, who was influenced by Islamic philosophy, wrote in a poem describing the Oneness and Greatness of Allah as under:

Some of the poems of ‘Amr Ibn Ma’di Karibar express the philosophical truth of life as follows:

Al-Huzli’s mourning poems reflect his psychological and philosophical views on death. He says about death: 

Some of al-Khansa’s poems also refer to Islamic philosophies such as unity, greatness, and mercy of God. 

Wine

Wine is described in some poems written during the early Islamic period, but this was limited to a few poems. For example, Abu Mihzan Sakafi composed several beautiful poems on wine. In a poem he wrote–

Style

There is no significant difference between Arabic poetry of the early Islamic period and poetry of the pre-Islamic period, although the language of the poetry of the early Islamic period seems to be somewhat elegant and simple. There is also some innovation in the imagery of the poets of this period. For example, Ka’b bin Zuhair, in one of his love poems, gives an innovative picture of the beauty of his beloved, as follows:

“Her white teeth are washed off with wine

As cold as snow

As sweet as the breeze blowing from North.”

The balanced use of words in al-Hutayya’s poetry is remarkable, but he also used unfamiliar words in many of his poems.

The language of Ma’di Karib’s poetry is deep, the emotions are serious and the descriptions are simple and brilliant, the imagination is thoughtful.

In conclusion, the characteristics of pre-Islamic poetry and early Islamic poetry are quite similar, but early Islamic poetry is free from vulgarity and influenced by Islamic philosophy, and somewhat elegant and simple in language and style. 0 0 0.

A Brief History of Arabic Literature: Early Islamic Period

Chapter-5

Characteristics of Arabic Prose Literature in the Early Islamic Period 

Arabic Prose Literature was in its infancy if compared to the unprecedented development of poetic literature in the pre-Islamic period. This was because prose was not as popular as poetry in Arabia during that period. Another major reason for this was that all literature at that time was composed by word of mouth and was delivered orally. Therefore, the appeal that Arabic poetry could have on the emotions of the people was not possible through prose. In short, prose literature began to take shape in the pre-Islamic period and continued from the fifth century to 622 CE. This was followed by the early Islamic period in Arabic literature from the time of the migration of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) from Mecca to Medina, and with it, the rapid development of Arabic prose literature began. Early Islamic Arabic prose literature usually refers to hadiths, letters, treaties, commentaries, histories, speeches, etc. which were created out of necessity, not as a branch of literature.

A study of the prose literature created in the early Islamic period reveals the following characteristics–

(a) The prose literature of the early Islamic period was created and developed revolving around the religion of Islam preached by the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). The Prophet had to explain many surahs and verses of the Qur’an in order to make the Qur’an, the main book of this religion, easily understandable to everyone. As a result, Hadith was born and the Hadith was quickly spread abroad by the Companions of the Prophet Muhammad and those who met the Prophet. 

(b) Another major characteristic of Arabic prose in the early Islamic period is that it was simple and straightforward. There was no ambiguity in such prose.

(c) The scope of prose literature of this period was vast. This is because the Hadith dealt with all aspects of social life, political life, religious life, etc.

(d) Most of the prose works of the early Islamic period clearly stated the name, identity, etc. of the author, who narrated it from whom, to whom, etc.

(e) The prose of this period was free from all forms of exaggeration. The main statement was expressed directly.

(f) The prose of this period was completely grammatical which gave a universality to the Arabic language.

(g) The prose of the early Islamic period was free from rhetoric.

(h) The prose of this period was composed of its own Arabic words. They were not influenced by any other languages.

(i) The language of the Arabic prose of the early Islamic period was simple and straightforward, but the spoken speeches were noble and appealing. For example, the following is an excerpt from the last speech of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) at Arafat during the farewell Hajj:

In conclusion, prose literature that sprouted in the pre-Islamic period became a strong seedling with bright potential in the early Islamic period which later became a huge tree that made Arabic one of the major languages ​​of the world. 0 0 0.

A Brief History of Arabic Literature: Early Islamic Period 

Chapter-6

Prominent Arabic Poets of the Early Islamic Period

The Early  Islamic Period refers to the span of forty years between 622 AD and 661 AD. Arabic poetry developed extensively in the pre-Islamic period. This trend continued in the early Islamic period. The poetry of the poets of the pre-Islamic era reflected the prevailing thoughts, traditions, beliefs, customs, etc. of that era and some of them were guilty of obscenity. However, after the advent of Islam, a number of Arab poets began to compose poetry after being influenced by Islamic philosophy. Their poetry expressed Islamic philosophy and thought such as the Oneness of Allah, the glory of Allah, heaven, hell, this world, the Hereafter, the fruits of action, humanism, etc. Thus, the Arabic poets who continued to practice poetry in both the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods are called ‘Mukhadrim’ poets. The poems of the Mukhadrim poets were similar in style to those of the pre-Islamic period, but a new theme and philosophy of Islam were added to their poems. Later, with the spread of Islam, the influence of poetry gradually declined in Arab society, and prose literature flourished. It is worth mentioning that the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), the founder of Islam, also loved poetry and listened to the recitation of elegant and moral poetry. Some of the Prophet’s Companions also sometimes talked about poetry with him. He smiled as he listened to their discussion. For example, he listened to recitations of some poems of such poets as Ata Bani al-Hadrami, al-Khansa, and Nabigha al-Ju’di and admired their poetry. It is worth mentioning that the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) and the four righteous Caliphs also loved poetry. All four of them were poets, but none were professional poets. However, they wrote poems to encourage the soldiers on the battlefield and quoted poems from other poets to boost the morale of the warriors.

The most prominent and famous of the Mukhadrim poets were Nabigha al-Ju’di, Hasan bin Thabit, al-Khansa, al-Hutayya, Abu Zubayr al-Hujli, ‘Amr ibn Madikarib, and a few others. The following is a brief introduction to these poets with their poetic careers:

Nabigha Al-Judi

Brief Life Sketch: Nabigha al-Judi was a famous and popular poet of the early Islamic period. His real name was Abu Layla Hassan ibn Qais. He is believed to have been born in the last decade of the fifth century. He was born in the Joda tribe of Arabia. He hated idolatry and abstained from drinking wine. He did not believe in the traditional pagan religion of Arabia and followed the creed preached by Prophet Abraham (AS). Later, he went to the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) and converted to Islam. He composed a poem in praise of the Prophet and recited it before him. The Prophet was fascinated by his recitation and prayed to Allah for him. He traveled to many countries.

It is said that in his middle age he lost his poetic talent but later he regained the talent. He is called ‘Nabigha’ (flowing) because he lost his poetic power and regained it.

This poet went to Ispahan during the reign of Abdul Malik, the last Caliph of the Umayyad dynasty, and died there at the age of 180.

Poetic Career:  Nabigha Al-Ju’di was a born poet. He had a special characteristic that what came out of his mouth naturally was his poetry. Nabigha Al-Ju’di could compose poetry on any theme easily and recited poetry on various occasions. He never revised or refined a poem he wrote. As a result, his poetry was a combination of good and bad. Commenting on his poetry, al-Ashmayi said, “Nabigha al-Ju’di mixed expensive shawls of thousands of ‘dirhams’ (Arabic currency) with cheap veils. He was the first to use words in Arabic poetry with meanings other than their lexical meanings. He wrote many eulogies, satires and elegies. There is no obscene description in his poetry. Nabigha al-Ju’di’s poetry was elegant, and moral as he was deeply influenced by Islamic philosophy. He contributed significantly to the development of Arabic poetry in the early Islamic period. Unfortunately, most of his poems have been lost due to a lack of preservation.

Hasan Ibn Thabit

Brief Life Sketch: Hasan Ibn Thabit was a popular and famous poet of the early Islamic period. He is famous in history as ‘Shayerur Rasool’ (Poet of the Messenger). He was the only poet during the lifetime of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) who responded to the poems written by non-Muslim poets insulting and attacking Islam and the Prophet. He also wrote many poems in praise of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him). The Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) was pleased with his actions and said to him, “O Hasan, your reward from Allah in the Hereafter is Paradise.” 

Hasan ibn Thabit was born in Medina around 563 AD to the Khazraj tribe. His real name was Abul Hasan Walid Hasan ibn Thabit al Ansari. He was a relative of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) on his mother’s side. He established himself as a professional poet in the pre-Islamic period. He recited poetry with the poets Al-A’sha and Al-Khansa at the famous Ukaz Fair in Mecca. He received a regular scholarship for composing poems in praise of the princes and princesses of the Gachsanaid dynasty. He also composed poems in praise of the Hira kings and won many prizes.

After the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) migrated to Medina, he converted to Islam along with other inhabitants of Medina and helped the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) in various ways. It is said that he was physically weak and could not help the Prophet in any battle. But he helped spread Islam through poetry. 

After the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) migrated to Medina, Islam began to rise and then some influential persons of Mecca, such as Abu Safyan bin al-Haris, ‘Abd ibn Muttalib, ‘Abdullah bin al-Jibara, ‘Amr bin al-Ash and Dirar, were alarmed at the rise of Islam and they began to oppose the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him). The Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) consulted with his Companions and appointed three men-Hasan ibn Thabit, Abdullah ibn Rawaha, and Kab ibn Malik, to respond to their opposition. Hasan bin Thabit and Ka’b bin Malik responded to the poetry written by anti-Islamic poets denouncing the Prophet and Islam. Abdullah bin Rawaha began to write poetry satirizing the superstitions, blind faiths, and corrupted social system of the Quraysh.

It is narrated that the Prophet ordered Hasan bin Thabit to recite poetry by climbing up the minaret of the mosque in Medina. After the death of Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) in 632 AD, Thabit almost ceased to compose poetry, but he composed some eulogies and elegies describing the virtues of ‘Umar and ‘Uthman.

Hassan bin Thabit, who served Islam with poetry, died in 674 AD.

Poetic Career: Hassan bin Thabit was a poet by nature and composed many poems by word of mouth. His poems can be classified into five categories: satirical poetry, mourning poetry, praise poetry, love poetry and joyful poetry. 

Hassan bin Thabit wrote more than two thousand satires and elegies. He is said to have written about 1,000 poems of three to twenty lines. Those poems were composed satirizing Abu Sufyan, Ibn al-Jibara, Amr bin al-Ash, Hatim bin Hisham and Abu Jahl. He belittled them by comparing them to monkeys, goats, ostriches, and foxes.

His poems of mourning were written on the martyrs of the battles of Badr and Uhud. He wrote a long poem mourning the death of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). He also composed elegies lamenting the death of Hazrat Uthman (RA), Hazrat Umar (RA), Hamza bin Abdul Muttalib and others.

In some poems, he described the virtues and glories of his own clan.

Before converting to Islam, Hasan bin Thabit wrote many love poems where he portrayed the charming beauty of women.

The poems he composed after his conversion to Islam are entirely based on Islamic philosophy. In a poem he wrote–

The language of his poetry is clear, profound and ornate. In some of his poems, he used unfamiliar and complex words. 

In short, Hasan bin Thabit represented Islam and the Prophet through poetry in the early Islamic era and protected the Prophet from non-Muslim enemies through poetry. He was undoubtedly a first-rate poet of the early Islamic period. Unfortunately, many of his poems have been lost due to a lack of preservation. This is an irreparable loss to the Arabic language and literature. 

Amor Khansa

Arabic poetry developed unprecedentedly during the pre-Islamic period and many male poets as well as female poets made significant contributions to this field. However, the number of female poets was smaller than that of male poets, but this number was not negligible. Historical evidence suggests that more than sixty women poets existed in the pre-Islamic period between 500 AD and 622 AD and they composed poetry alongside male poets. It is known that the Abbasid poet Abu Nuwas memorized the poetry of sixty Arabic women poets of the pre-Islamic period. In addition, the Diwan al-Hamasa, compiled by Abu Tammam and al-Buhtari, also contained poems by several women poets. This suggests that there were women poets in that era and they were not few in number. They also contributed significantly to the development of Arabic poetry. Unfortunately, the poems of those poets have been lost from the pages of history due to a lack of preservation. This is certainly an irreparable loss to Arabic literature. However, among the many women poets of the pre-Islamic and early Islamic periods whose names appear in the pages of history are Al-Khansa, Khirnik, Laila Afifa, Jalila bint Murrah, etc. Below is a brief introduction to Al-Khansa and a glimpse of her poetic career.

Brief Life Sketch: Al-Khansa (Amr Khancha), the full name was Tumadir bint Amor Khansa, abbreviated Al Khansa. He was a poet of both the pre-Islamic and early Islamic periods. This woman poet was born in the tribe of Salim who lived in Najd. Her exact date of birth is unknown, but it is believed that she was born in or around 575 AD. In short, he was a contemporary of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). She possessed a fine physique and was excellent in character. She married twice and became the mother of six children. Legend says that all of her children were poets. She was mainly a poet of elegiac poems and she composed her elegies mourning the death of her two brothers who were killed in the sectarian conflict. She recited poetry in front of the poet Nabigha at the Ukaz Fair in Mecca and Nabigha was impressed by her poem and remarked, “If this blind poet (A’sha) had not recited poetry before you, I would have called you the best poet of the year.”

After being heard the name of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), she went to Medina with some of her relatives and embraced Islam. She also recited poems to the Prophet. The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) was fascinated by her recitation of poetry and expressed interest in hearing more poetry recitations from her.

Her children are also known to have embraced Islam with the Prophet, and four of her sons were killed in the Battle of Qasediya in 637 CE. Upon hearing the news that his four sons had been killed in the battle, Amor Khansa said, “All praise belongs to Allah who has honored me by killing them. This poet died in 646 AD.

Poetic Career: Al Khansa is famous as a composer of elegy (mourning poetry). It is estimated that he wrote hundreds of poems, but only about 1,000 verses of her poems have been preserved. Most of her poems were written in mourning for her two brothers and relatives who were killed in the sectarian conflict. Her poems were short but loaded with deep and touching emotions. Her language was vivid, rhythmic and simple. Her imagination was fresh and fascinating. There is no obscenity in her poetry. Her poetry was not entirely religious, although it contained references to the greatness of God and His mercy. She depicted the sorrows, laughter and tears of her personal life, the rough struggles of life in the desert, etc. in her poems.

In a nutshell, it can be said that Al-Khansa was able to establish Arabic mourning poetry in a distinguished rank. She was undoubtedly one of the greatest women poets of the pre-Islamic and early Islamic periods. 

Al-Hutay’ah

Brief Life Sketch: Al-Hutay’ah  (or Al-Hutaiah) was one of the most popular Arabic Mukhadrim poets. His real name was Abu Mulayka al-Zarwal bin Aus. He was born in the womb of a slave woman in the tribe of Banu Abs. His exact date of birth is unknown. However, it is believed that he was born in the last decade of the sixth century or the first decade of the seventh century. Born of a slave girl, he was ridiculed, hated, and neglected from an early age. His character had all the bad qualities of an ordinary Arab of that time. From an early age, he developed a disgust for those who condemned him and began composing poetry with the determination to take revenge on them. He was a pagan in the first half of his life. Later, after the advent of Islam, he converted to Islam along with several other members of his tribe. But he did not give up his bad habits. It is known that he did not meet the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) in his life. After the death of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) in 632 AD, he renounced Islam and began to oppose Islam. However, the first Caliph of Islam, Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA), launched a campaign against the apostates. Al-Hutay’ah then converted to Islam again. During the reign of the second Caliph, Hazrat Umar (RA), he incurred the wrath of the government by composing a poem condemning a tax collector named Jibrikan Ibn Badr. He later apologized and was released. He earned his living by composing and reciting poetry. In other words, he was a professional poet. He died in 674 AD.

Poetic Career: Al-Hutay’ah was a born poet and is famous in the history of Arabic poetry as the author of satiric poetry. He wrote about 900 poems. He took revenge by composing satire on those who hated him. His satirical poetry did not exclude anyone: his acquaintances, strangers, relatives, or non-relatives. He also wrote poems condemning his own appearance. In a poem he wrote–

He did not write any poems condemning the poor. 

Some of his poems were eulogistic. In those poems, he praised and glorified those who helped him or showed sympathy for him. He wrote poems praising leading figures such as Abu Musa al-Ansari, al-Waleed bin Uqba, Syed bin al-Ash, and Uyna bin Hisn and won their sympathy and reward.

He also wrote some love poems. His love poems contain fascinating descriptions of the various limbs of the female body such as the neck, thighs, nose, ears, hair, face, smile, etc. His imageries were fanciful and fascinating.

Though he was a poet of the early Islamic period, his poetry was very slightly influenced by Islamic philosophy.

His poems were rhythmic. The balanced use of words is a notable feature of his poetry, although he also used unfamiliar words in many of his poems.

He contributed significantly to the flourishing of Arabic poetry. He is said to be the last of the Mukhadrim poets.

Amor Ibne Madi’karib

Brief Life Sketch: Amor ibne Madi’karib was a poet, brilliant orator, and heroic warrior of both the pre-Islamic and early Islamic periods.

He was born in 533 AD to a pagan family in Yemen. He had a very large physique and a high tone of voice. His childhood was spent in the chaos, play, joy and entertainment of Bedouin society. He was a believer in traditional pagan religion for most of his life, but after the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) migrated to Medina he went to Medina in 631 AD with some of his tribe and converted to Islam with the Prophet. Though he converted to Islam he could not give up the chaotic ways of Bedouin life. He was a very gluttonous man. The Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) died a year after he converted to Islam. Then Madi’karib renounced Islam and reverted back to paganism and fell prey to the instigation of the hypocritical prophet Aswad al-Ansari and took up arms against Islam at the Battle of Ridda. However, he was captured by Muslim forces and imprisoned. He was released after asking forgiveness from the Caliph Abu Bakr and converted to Islam. He then fought bravely on behalf of the Muslim army during the reign of Abu Bakr and Umar. In 637 AD, at the age of 110, he fought bravely at the Battle of Qasedia, paving the way for the victory of Islam. It is said that as a warrior he was equal to a thousand warriors alone. The Caliph Umar (may Allah be pleased with him) often took his advice on war tactics.

He showed extraordinary bravery on the battlefield and his name as a brave warrior spread far and wide. Many contemporary and later poets wrote many poems praising his heroism.

In 642-43 AD, he took part in the Battle of Nehawande and fought with immense bravery and was finally killed on the battlefield by the enemy.

Poetic Career: Amor Ibn Madi’Karib was a poet by nature. He wrote a small number of poems, but most of them were lecture-type. The main themes of his poetry were war and heroism. His description was objective and unbiased. He never exaggerated when praising anyone. He fluently embodied the courage of the Bedouin nation in his poetry. In some of his poems, he also described his own bravery and heroism. In a poem he wrote:

Some of his poems are about love. His love poems deal with the description of the beauty of the female body but he does not praise it. He was always polite when he wrote about women.

Some of his poems deal with philosophical matters, e.g.

Some of his poems reflect the melodies and chimes of Quranic verses. Some lines of his poetry read like enlightening proverbs. For example, the following lines can be mentioned:

(a) Give up what you cannot afford to do.

(b) Do work with great enthusiasm, whether small or big. 

His language was profound, his feelings were serious and his descriptions were simple and brilliant, his imagination was thoughtful.

He wrote a small number of poems, but with those, he contributed to the development of the Arabic language and literature. 0 0 0.

Ka’b bin Zuhair

Brief Life Sketch: Ka’b bin Zuhair was one of the most famous and popular mukhadrim poets. He was born into a family of the Mozaina clan of Najd. The exact date of his birth is unknown, but he is believed to have been born in the middle of the sixth century. His father, Zuhair bin Abu Salma, was a famous poet of the pre-Islamic period. His mother, Kabashah bint Amar bin Adi, was the daughter of the tribe of Banu Suhaym of the tribe of Ghatfan. Ka’b was born into a family whose all the members were poets. Therefore, he became attracted to poetry from a very young age and took to compose poetry. His father ordered him to refrain from composing poetry at a very young age. He feared that if his son wrote poetry at an immature age, it would degrade the quality of poetry and degrade the dignity of their family. However, Ka’b bin Zuhair disobeyed his father’s ban and continued to practice poetry. As a result, his father imprisoned him and punished him. However, as he continued to practice poetry, his father took him far away from home into the desert and composed a few lines of a poem keeping gaps between, and ordered him to fill in the blanks. Then Ka’b bin Zuhair himself composed the lines of poetry and completed the poem. Then his father was pleased to read the lines of the poem completed by his son and allowed him to write poetry from that day on. 

Zuhair was born into a pagan family and spent the majority of his life inciting the Quraysh against Islam by composing poems in opposition to Islam. He even wrote poems condemning the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). His father, Abi Salma, was born into a pagan family but believed in monotheism and one day he learned of the birth of the Prophet in a dream and bequeathed to his sons to follow the religion of the Prophet.

In 630 AD, Ka’b bin Zuhair traveled to Medina with his brother Buzair to convert to Islam. However, in the middle of their journey, Zuhair stopped to go to Medina and sent his brother Buzair to the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) to learn about the Prophet and his religion. After his arrival at Medina, Buzair met his childhood friend Abu Bakr (may Allah be pleased with him) and went to the prophet with him. Meeting the prophet, he became fascinated by the Prophet’s personality and beliefs and embraced Islam. When Zuhair heard that his brother Buzair had converted to Islam, he became very angry and composed poems condemning Islam and the Prophet. Later, after the conquest of Mecca, the Prophet ordered the execution of some of the fiercest opponents of Islam. Among them, Ka’b bin Zuhair was one. Later, on the advice of his brother Buzair, he went to the Prophet and apologized and converted to Islam. There he instantly composed a poem praising Islam and the Prophet and recited it before the Prophet. The Prophet was fascinated by his recitation of poetry and gave him his shawl. After that, he always spent his days with the Prophet as long as he lived. He later participated in several battles on behalf of Islam and contributed to its victory. After converting to Islam, he became indifferent to poetry.

He lived for more than a hundred years and died in 647 AD after serving Islam.

Poetic Career: Ka’b bin Zuhair was a poet of both pre-Islamic and early Islamic periods. His poetry has the characteristics of pre-Islamic poetry as most of his poetry was written in the pre-Islamic period. Islamic philosophy was expressed only in poems written after his conversion to Islam.

He wrote a large number of poems, but most of them have been lost due to a lack of preservation. Only about thirty of his poems are available to date. A study of his poetry shows that the themes of his poetry were condemnation of the enemy, praise of heroes, warfare, animals, love, etc. His poems also reflect the social system, politics, religion, etc. of that time.

His poems written before his conversion to Islam were often condemnatory and in them, he condemned Islam, the Prophet, and his tribal enemies.

Many of his poems deal with camels, horses, donkeys, etc. In a poem he describes the camel he rides as follows:

His love poems are written in the qasida style and are influenced by his predecessors such as Imraul Qais and al-Nabigha. He begins his love poem with a description of the abandoned abode of his beloved and then describes her beauty. He paints his beloved as a trickster, deceiver and breaker of promises. In a poem he wrote: 

One of his most famous poems is ‘Banat Suwad’ (a qasida). He wrote the poem in praise of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). The following lines are quoted as examples:

Another famous poem by Ka’b bin Zuhair is ‘Qashidatul Borda’ This poem is descriptive. The poem has sixty-nine lines. The first twelve (12) lines are written as an introduction. From thirteen to thirty-one lines, the poet gives a physical description of the camel he uses as his vehicle. From thirty-two to fifty-two lines, the poet apologizes to the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) and in the following lines, he praises the Prophet’s Companions and Mujahids. The poem is an incomparable treasure of Arabic poetry in terms of excellence of subject matter, fluency of description, depth of emotion, beauty of language, rhythm, poetic skill, wording, religious frenzy and expression of meaning.

The language of Ka’b bin Zuhair’s poetry is brilliant, emotional and exciting. In his poetry, he uses abundant metaphors. His images are very beautiful and innovative. In a poem, he depicts the beauty of his beloved as follows:

His poetry is a combination of simple and complex words. Some of his poems also use unfamiliar words, but many of his lines are advisory like proverbs.

In conclusion, Ka’b bin Zuhair is surely one of the most remarkable Mukhadrim poets in whose poetry the characteristics of the poetry of the pre-Islamic period and the early Islamic period exist equally. 0 0 0.

Abu Juwayeb Al-Huzli

Brief Life Sketch: Abu Juwayeb al-Huzli was one of the greatest Arabic poets. He is famous in the history of Arabic poetry as the author of tragedy. He was born in the seventh decade of the sixth century to the tribe of Huzail in the province of Hejaz in Arabia. There is no detail in history about the personal life of this poet. He believed in the traditional pagan religion of Arabia. It is known that in his youth he fell in love with a young woman of his clan but was unsuccessful in love and began to write love poems. In the last years of his life, he converted to Islam and went to Medina from the province of Hejaz with the intention of accepting Islam at the hands of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). Sadly, the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) passed away early in the morning on the day he reached Medina. At the death of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), he embraced Islam at the hand of Abu Bakr (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him). After converting to Islam, he became an ideal Muslim and devoted himself to the service of Islam. He joined the army with his five sons during the African campaign of Islam. Sadly, however, after arriving in Egypt, his five sons died of the plague epidemic. Despite the grief of the death of his sons, he did not return from the battlefield and won the Battle of Carthage, part of the Roman Empire.

After the victory, the commander Abdullah bin Sa’d bin Abi Sarah sent him to Medina as a messenger of the victory. However, after reaching Egypt, he suddenly fell ill and died in 649 AD. He was buried in the same graveyard with his five sons. He had a son named Mayen bin Khawayled who also became a poet.

Poetic Career: Abu Zawaib al-Huzli began writing poetry at an early age. His early poems were love poems and those poems depict his suffering from failed love.

Most of his poems are tragedic. He composed tragedic (elegiac) poems mourning the death of his five sons. In one of his mourning poems, he wrote:

His mourning poems also reflect his psychological and philosophical views on death. He says about death:

His poems also describe the beauty of nature. In one poem he gives a wonderful poetic description of the clouds. Another poem describes the collection of honey by bees.

Abu Zawaib al-Hujli was a poet by nature. Therefore, some of the weaknesses of the nature poet are evident in his poems. His choice of words is sometimes weak and emotionally overwhelming. But he was a master at describing the subject matter of his poetry. His condolences were very deep and heartbreaking. His imageires had a taste of innovation.

In conclusion, Abu Zawayb al-Hujli is undoubtedly one of the most exceptional Mukhadrim poets who played a strong role in enriching the treasury of Arabic poetry by giving a new dimension to Arabic elegiac poetry. 

Abu Mihjan al-Thaqafi

Brief Life Sketch: Abu Mihjan al-Thaqafi is one of the most widely discussed Arabic mukhadrim poets. He is known in the history of Arabic literature as the ‘poet of wine’ He is also known as the ‘Soldier Poet’ because he served as a soldier in several wars and composed many war poems based on his experiences.

He was born into the famous Thakif family in Arabia. His real name was Amr bin Habib bin Amr bin Umayr bin Awf bin Aqda bin Anaza bin Awf bin Thaqif. His popular name was Mihzan Thaqafi. He is believed to have been born in the middle of the sixth century. His father’s name was Habib bin Amr and his mother’s name was Qunud bint Abdullah bin Abd Shams. From childhood, he was very wicked, and rude in nature and as he grew older he became accustomed to living an independent and chaotic life. He was also accustomed to drinking too much alcohol. However, he became proficient in wrestling and archery in his youth. In 630 AD, he fought bravely against the Muslims at the Battle of Taif. In 631 AD, however, he was fascinated by the monotheistic message of Islam and went to the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) with some of his tribe and converted to Islam. He then devoted himself to the service of Islam.

After his conversion to Islam, he served as a soldier in many battles during the reign of Caliph Abu Bakr (RA) and wrote many poems based on his real experiences of war. Though he was converted to Islam, he could not give up his drinking habit. Therefore, the Caliph Hazarat Umar (peace and blessings of Allah be with him) arrested him and threw him into prison. It is said that during the Battle of Qasdiya in 635 AD, he went to Sa’d bin Waqqas, the commander of the Islamic army, and asked permission to take part in the battle. However, he was drunk at the time and was chained to prison instead of being allowed to participate in the war. Abu Mihzan Thaqafi was observing the fighting from prison. At one point, seeing the defeat of the Muslim soldiers, he pleaded with the commander’s wife to free him from prison, and after coming out from the prison, he mounted a beautiful horse named ‘Balka’ and jumped into the battlefield. With his joining, the situation of war went in favor of the Muslims and the Muslims won the Battle of Qasediya.

He lived long after the Battle of Qaseddiya and fought in several battles. This soldier poet died in 650 AD.

Poetic Career: Abu Mihzan al-Thaqafi was one of the most popular Arabic mukhadrim poets. He wrote many poems, but only parts of them have been preserved. His main themes of poetry were wine, war, the bravery of his tribe, and praise. Some of his poems are satirical.

Abu Mihzan al-Thaqafi was so addicted to wine that he could not give up his drinking habit despite being punished and condemned for drinking alcohol. He also wrote several poems on wine. In a poem he wrote–

Though Mihjan al-Thaqafi was an alcoholic, he had many good qualities such as fighting bravely for Islam, giving shelter to the distressed, helping the poor, etc. In a poem he wrote about himself:

His poems embody the poet’s personal emotions, feelings, imagination, and sense of life. His poetry is also a document of the political and social life of the time. His language is fluent and rhythmic. He adorned his theme of poetry with simple but enjoyable imagery. His contribution to the development of poetry in the early Islamic period is undoubtedly commendable. 0 0 0.

A Brief History of Arabic Literature: Early Islamic Period

Chapter-7

Arabic Prose Literature in the Early Islamic Period

‘Prose’ usually refers to the rhythmless language in which people converse in everyday life. The language of conversation is often disjointed and the method and manner of expression vary from person to person or from region to region. However, in prose, when a subject or context is expressed in a systematic manner to affect the listener, it becomes literature. There is literature in all the languages ​​of the world – it can be written or spoken. Unfortunately, prose literature was not given as much importance as poetry was given in ancient times. Therefore, the process of preserving prose literature in written form began much later than poetry. Arabic, one of the oldest languages ​​in the world, is rich in both prose and poetry. The literary tradition of this language dates back to the pre-Islamic period, although this period is famous for its poetic literature. However, if we look at the pages of history, we will see that prose literature, like Arabic poetry, sprouted in the pre-Islamic period. However, the scope of prose literature in the pre-Islamic period was very narrow and was limited to proverbs, discourses, traditional stories, legends, sayings of priests, etc. In other words, to say, the prose literature of the pre-Islamic period was like a newborn baby.

The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) migrated from Mecca to Medina in 622 CE, marking the beginning of the Islamic era in the history of Arabic literature. The Islamic period from 622 AD to 661 AD is considered to be the Early Islamic Period. During the early Islamic period, the scope of Arabic prose literature expanded and the style of ‘Arabic prose improved. During this period, new subjects such as hadith, letters, commentaries, history, etc. were added to Arabic prose literature and gave Arabic prose a new dimension and Arabic prose moved towards modernity. The following is a brief discussion of the various branches of Arabic prose literature born in the early Islamic period:

Hadiths: The hadiths of the Prophet occupy the lion’s share of the prose literature of the early Islamic period. Hadith includes the words, deeds, commands, discourses, etc. given to the Companions, the interpretation of the Qur’an by the Prophet, the accounts of people who came into contact with the Prophet, the battles he fought, and the letters he wrote to various leaders. The Prophet’s hadiths were first tried to be written down by his Companions and those who came into contact with him because they believed that the Prophet’s words were infallible, just and true. Since the Prophet followed the laws of the Qur’an given by Allah word by word in his personal life, his words, deeds, lifestyle, commands, and prohibitions were considered beyond doubt. The language of the hadith was pure prose. The hadiths of the Prophet were initially transmitted by the Companions orally and later they were preserved in written form. The prose of the hadiths was simple and easy to understand. Therefore, the hadiths of the Prophet gave simplicity, ease of understanding, rationality and universality to the Arabic language. The prose of the hadiths greatly influenced the language of later Arabic prose literature. Therefore, the hadith books are considered a milestone in the history of the Arabic language and literature.

Letters: Another branch of prose literature of the early Islamic period was letters, treaties, and speeches written as required at the time. The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) sent some letters to neighboring statesmen and employees in various places. In addition, the rightly guided Caliphs also had to write letters, orders, government proclamations, etc. to the provincial rulers from time to time during their reign. They are valuable resources of prose literature of the early Islamic period. They were written in prose and the language of the prose was simple and straightforward. There was no exaggeration in those correspondences. However, during the reign of Hazrat Ali, the fourth Caliph of Islam, the language of his letters was somewhat longer and the language of his prose was somewhat rhetorical. These correspondences reflect the social and political conditions of the time. 

In addition, the lectures delivered by poets, writers, leading figures, etc. on various occasions also bear samples of Arabic prose literature of the time. For example, the Prophet Muhammad’s (peace be upon him) speech delivered at Arafat in Mecca. The speech is of immense importance in the history of Islam. The language of the speech was simple but noble and fascinating. The speech is a summary of the commandments and prohibitions from Allah to mankind.

Tafsir: ‘Tafsir’ refers to the interpretation, notes, commentaries, etc. of the Qur’an. The Qur’an is a vast storehouse of knowledge. It contains the basic lessons of all the subjects necessary in human life. It contains many examples, allusions, parables references etc. The Prophet had to explain them in his own language because they were incomprehensible to ordinary readers. There is no mention in the Qur’an about how to apply some of the laws given by Allah in real life. For example, although there are commandments to pay salat, alms, and zakat, there is no explanation in the Qur’an about the method of paying these. The Prophet had to explain these matters. After the death of the Prophet, many scholars have written tafsir (explanations, notes) on the Qur’an. These are also a significant part of Arabic prose literature.

History: History is a branch of prose literature that originated in the early Islamic period. Many verses of the Qur’an were revealed based on historical events. As a result, the teaching of history went hand in hand with the study of the Hadith and the Qur’an. Such historical accounts are found in the commentaries and explanations of the Qur’an. During the reign of the Caliphs, history takes several forms, such as the biographies of the Prophets and Companions and their deeds, the battles of the Muslims with the Quraysh, and the expansion of Islam. These can be studied to gain knowledge of all aspects of the social, political, religious, cultural, and intellectual life of that time.

In addition to these, many speakers of the early Islamic period also delivered lectures in various places on various occasions. For example, poets such as Nabigha al-Ju’di, al-Hutayya, Abu Zubayr al-Hujli, and ‘Amr ibn Madikarib were also good speakers. Their speeches also represent early Arabic prose literature.

However, the influence of hadith on the development of prose literature in the early Islamic period was very strong and groundbreaking. The prose of the Hadith is still considered the ideal prose of the Arabic language.

To sum up, Arabic prose, which was born in the pre-Islamic period, learned to stand on its own feet and began to speak out in the early Islamic period. 0 0 0.

A Brief History of Arabic Literature: Early Islamic Period 

Chapter-8

Individuals Who Contributed to the Development of Arabic Prose Literature During the Early Islamic Period 

‘Prose’ refers to the language used spontaneously by people to communicate with each other in social life. There is prose literature in all the languages ​​of the world. Arabic, one of the world’s largest languages, also has rich prose literature. However, although there is no exact date for the beginning of prose literature in this language, there is historical evidence that Arabic prose literature was born in the pre-Islamic period, between 500 AD and 622 AD. The scope of prose literature of the time was limited to some proverbs, war stories, fairy tales, anecdotes, speeches, sayings of the Kahens, etc. Unfortunately, the prose literature of this period does not exist except for a few sketches.

In 622 AD, the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) migrated from Mecca to Medina and began to spread Islam openly. From this time onwards, a new awakening began in the social, political, religious, and literary life of Arabia. As a result, Arabic poetry as well as prose literature developed considerably. The Qur’an and the hadiths made a special contribution to this development. The language of the Qur’an was a wonderful combination of prose and verse. The language of the hadith, on the other hand, was plain prose. This prose was simple, straightforward and easy to understand. Therefore, the prose of the Hadith influenced the Arabic language of the time more than the language of the Qur’an. However, the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) as well as many others, especially the four Caliphs also contributed to the development and spread of Arabic prose. A brief discussion is made below on some of the figures who contributed to the development of early Arabic prose literature:

Hazrat Mohammad

Hazrat Mohammad was the chosen Messenger of Allah, the founder of Islam, social reformer, organizer, administrator and the perfect ideal person for mankind of all times.

Muhammad (peace be upon him) was born on April 20, 570 AD in Mecca, Arabia, to the famous Quraysh tribe. His father’s name was Abdullah and his mother’s name was Amina. His father died while Muhammad was in his mother’s womb and his mother Amina died when he was six years old. Orphaned Muhammad was raised by his uncle Abdul Muttalib and his uncle Abu Talib.

At the age of 25, he married Khadiza, the daughter of Ibn Khaled of the Nawfal tribes of Arabia.

From an early age, Muhammad (peace be upon him) was truthful, kind, just, and benevolent. As he grew older, he became thoughtful and godly. At the age of thirty-five, his life changed and he became more thoughtful and began to meditate in a cave on the mountain called Hira, about three miles away from Mecca. When he was 40 years old, one night while he was meditating in the Hira Cave, the Messenger of God, Gabriel, came to him and read him a message from God. The message was as follows:

As soon as he recited this verse, he attained divine knowledge and attained the status of the Messenger of Allah.

The Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) continued to receive messages from Allah for about 22 years till nine months before his death in 632 AD. The revelations from Allah were later compiled into a book called the Qur’an. This Qur’an contains all the necessary guidance for mankind. Those who follow the rules of this book are called ‘Muslims’

When the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) began to preach the message (Uhi) received from Allah, the pagans of Mecca created strong obstacles and began to oppose the Prophet. At one point their opposition to the Prophet reached its peak and he was threatened with death. Then, by the command of Allah, he fled with his companion Abu Bakr to Medina, about four hundred kilometers north of Mecca. The people of Medina gave him a warm welcome and embraced Islam with him and accepted the Prophet as their leader. In Medina, the Prophet began to preach openly and Islam began to spread rapidly. The pagans of Mecca became alarmed at the rapid spread of Islam and its popularity and waged several wars against the Prophet. Muhammad won almost every war. The Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) founded an Islamic state around Medina and established a system of governance based on Islamic laws.

He died on August 29, 632 AD, after preaching Islam, establishing an Islamic state and reforming many of the old superstitions in Arab society. 

Muhammad’s Contributions to Arabic Language and Literature: The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) was an ‘Ummi’ (illiterate). This means that he could neither read nor write. Despite being illiterate, he made an incomparable contribution to the  Arabic language and literature through the Qur’an given by Allah and his words, activities, speeches, etc.

The Holy Qur’an occupies a special place in the treasury of Arabic literature. Its language is a wonderful combination of prose and verse. It was composed in a manner that was unprecedented and incomparable. Its language, word choice, ornamentation, etc. had a profound influence on the Arabic language and literature of the time and gave a new impetus to the Arabic language and literature by giving it stability and universality. It is considered the main source of the Arabic language and literature of the early Islamic period. 

After the Qur’an, the Hadith books are one of the strongest and most significant sources of Arabic language and literature of the early Islamic period. ‘Hadith’ refers to the words, deeds and approvals of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). In other words, to say, the account of the life of Hazarat Muhammad (peace be upon him), his letters to his representatives in various places and prominent persons at home and abroad, account of the various persons who visited him, friends, companions, relatives, and the various battles with him are recorded in the hadith books. 

The language of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) was simple, straightforward and easy. It was grammatically correct and free from prolixity. Therefore, this prose attracted everyone and the Arabic language later developed on the basis of the prose of the Hadith. The following is an excerpt from his last speech at Arafat delivered during the farewell pilgrimage, which illustrates how simple, straightforward, easy and realistic his prose was:

Despite being illiterate, the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) not only contributed to the Arabic language and literature but also gave a new impetus to Arabic prose on which the Arabic language has become a dignified language in the world today.

Hazrat Abu Bakr

Brief Life Sketch: Hazrat Abu Bakr was one of the favourite companions of the founder of Islam, the first convert to Islam, the first righteous Caliph of the Islamic state established by the Prophet, the compiler of the Qur’an, and an efficient administrator. He was born in 573 AD to the famous Banu Taif tribe of Mecca. His father’s name was Abu Kahaf and his mother’s name was Umme Khayr. He was born into a pagan clan, but from an early age, he hated idolatry and believed in monotheism. He was kind, humble and philanthropic from his childhood. His father was a businessman and Abu Bakr was involved in business with him from an early age.

In 610 AD, Hazarat Muhammad (peace be upon him) received the Prophethood from Allah and Abu Bakr was the first to embrace Islam from the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him). Once after receiving the Prophethood, Allah made the Prophet visit the Upper World (Meraj). The Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) gave Abu Bakr the title of ‘Siddiq’ (believer) because he believed the event of the Prophet’s journey to heaven without the least doubt whereas the disbelievers found it difficult to believe it. 

In 622 AD, when the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) migrated from Mecca to Medina after being oppressed by the pagan inhabitants of Mecca, Abu Bakr accompanied the Prophet to Medina. In Medina, Abu Bakr took an active part in all the campaigns against the various anti-Islamic infidels and helped the prophet with money. On August 29, 632 CE, Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) passed away and Abu Bakr succeeded the Prophet as the first just Caliph of the Islamic state established by Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) centered in Medina.

After the death of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), several people claimed to be ‘prophets’ and many newly converted Muslims left Islam and began to oppose it. The newly appointed Caliph Abu Bakr suppressed the false prophets and apostates with a very harsh hand and saved Islam from chaos.

The Qur’an revealed to the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) was not compiled during his lifetime. The Qur’an was memorized by the Companions. However, many Hafiz (Qur’an memorizers) were martyred in the Battle of Ridda. Therefore, on the advice of Hazarat Umar (may Allah be pleased with him), Abu Bakr compiled the Qur’an in book form under the leadership of Hasan bin Thabit.

Abu Bakr then campaigned in Syria and Iraq, part of the Byzantine Empire. He died in 634 AD while this expedition was going on.

Contributions to Arabic Language and Literature: Hazrat Abu Bakr was an educated man. He was interested in poetry and wrote some poems, but he was not a professional poet. However, he contributed to the development of the Arabic language and literature. He himself memorized many hadiths of the Prophet and disseminated them among the people.

He was an eloquent speaker. His speeches were incomparable and influential in terms of the seriousness of thought, choice of words, depth of perception, etc. After the death of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), there was much controversy over the election of the next Caliph. Then, he made some statements addressing the Ansar regarding their role to the spreading of Islam. An excerpt of one of his speeches quoted given below as an example of his prose style–

The above-quoted lines prove how simple, logical and powerful the prose of Hazrat Abu Bakr was.

He also developed and promoted Arabic prose through his sermons during Friday prayers. Thus, although he was not a writer himself, Abu Bakr contributed to the development of Arabic prose. 

Hazrat Umar

Hazrat Umar (RA) was one of the favourite Companions of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), the preacher of Islam, the second just Caliph of Islam, a skilled ruler and a conquering hero. He was born in 583 CE to the famous Banu Adi tribe of Arabia. His father’s name was Khattab bin Nufayl and his mother’s name was Hantama bin Hisham.

As a young man, he worked with his father herding sheep and working hard. He was a very strict man. In the first half of his life, he was fiercely opposed to Islam and conspired to assassinate the Prophet. But later he was fascinated by the recitation of the Koran in the voice of his own sister and converted to Islam. He accepted Islam and became a faithful companion of the Prophet and devoted himself to the service of Islam for the rest of his life.

In 622 CE, he migrated from Mecca to Medina at the invitation of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) and continued to preach Islam with him. The Prophet died in 632 CE and Abu Bakr became the Caliph of the Islamic State established by the Prophet around Medina. Abu Bakr died after reigning for only two years and Hazarat Umar succeeded him.

Hazarat Umar launched an imperial campaign to secure the Islamic Empire and annexed the Byzantine Empire and much of the Roman Empire within ten years of his reign. He even expanded his empire to Africa and ruled almost half of the world.

He was not only a conquering warrior, but he was also an efficient administrator. He introduced Islamic rule in all the countries he conquered and consolidated peace and security in those countries. He also did many public works. He built about 800 mosques and established many madrassas.

He divided the Islamic state into several provinces and divided the provinces into several subdivisions to consolidate good governance. He also formed a permanent army and arranged for the soldiers to be paid salaries instead of gifts.

One day in 644 AD, Hazrat Umar, the ruler of such a vast empire, was stabbed to death by a Persian youth named Abu Lulu Firoz while he was praying in the mosque of Medina.

Contributions to the Arabic Language and Literature: Hazarat Umar was an educated man. Before converting to Islam, he learned Arabic and became fluent in Hebrew. His power of speech was extraordinary.

He occasionally composed poems but was not a professional poet. He boosted the morale of the warriors by composing poems on the battlefield or reciting poems by other poets. He memorized many hadiths of the Prophet and disseminated them to the people. He also gave many lectures on religion, social matters, and politics every Friday during weekly prayers.

His speech was powerful, interesting, clean, noble and heartfelt. His eloquence, expression, and elegance impressed the audience. As a sample of his Arabic prose, a few lines from the first speech he delivered after his appointment as Caliph are quoted below:

Many of the sayings of  Hazarat Umar (may Allah be pleased with him) have become proverbs, e.g

 (a) Never postpone today’s work till tomorrow.

(b) You shall fear them from the bottom of your heart whom you hate.

(c) The more unattached you are in worldly life, the more independent you will be.

(d) Do not judge a person by his prayers and fasting, but look at his knowledge and sincerity.

(e) A person who leads his life according to his own intelligence is the master of his own affairs.

In addition, he had to write many letters and contracts to his subordinates during the administrative period.

Thus he contributed to the development of Arabic prose through speeches, correspondence, hadith, etc.

Hazrat Othman

Hazrat Othman (Hazrat Osman) was a faithful Companion of the Prophet Muhammad, a philanthropist, the third just Caliph of the Islamic Empire and an efficient administrator. He was born in 575 AD to the noble Quraysh tribe of Arabia. His father’s name was Affan ibn Abi al-As and his mother’s name was Arwa bint Qurays. As a child, he learned to read and write Arabic under a tutor. His father was a wealthy businessman. He was involved in trade with his father from a young age and later became the richest man in the Quraysh clan.

He was converted to Islam preached by the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) in 611 AD and became a faithful Companion of the Prophet (peace be upon him) and assisted him in various ways in the spread of Islam. He himself married two daughters of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), Umme Ruqiyah and Umme Kulsum. He was also called ‘Du-al-Nuriya’ (the owner of the two lights) because he married two daughters of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him).

In 622 AD, he migrated with his family to Medina after the Prophet. In 644 CE, after the assassination of the second Caliph of Islam, Hazrat Umar (RA), Hazrat Uthman (RA) became the third Caliph of the Islamic Empire. In addition to maintaining the policies adopted by ‘Umar (may Allah be pleased with him) when he became the Caliph, he made some changes in the tax policy and imposed new taxes. During his reign, the Muslim conquest of Persia was completed and Islam continued to spread to the Byzantine Empire.

He also reformed the army and formed a navy. During his reign, there were differences of opinion among the people of different regions over the style of the pronunciation and tone of the recitation of the Qur’an. Therefore, he ended the controversy over the reading of the Qur’an by preparing a pure copy of the Qur’an compiled by the first Caliph, Hazrat Abu Bakr. The work was done by a poet and scholar named Hassan bin Thabit. He prepared six copies of the Qur’an and sent them to the major cities of the Islamic Empire.

During the reign of Hazrat Uthman, nepotism increased in the appointment of high-ranking government officials. Being dissatisfied with his nepotism, a rebellion broke out towards the end of his reign. Later, in 656 AD, an Egyptian rebel force besieged the residence of the Caliph Hazrat Uthman and killed him.

Contributions to Arabic Language and Literature: Hazrat Uthman was a well-educated man and had a passion for poetry. He is also known to have written some poetry in his youth, although he was not a professional poet. He memorized many hadiths of the Prophet and disseminated them among the people.

Hazrat Uthman inspired the development of history and literature. During his reign, Hazrat Ali’s brother Aqeel arranged for lectures on history to be delivered regularly from the mosque in Medina.

The main example of Hazrat Uthman’s literary fame is his speeches. His speech was brilliant, heartwarming and appealing. The speech he delivered after being elected Caliph of the Islamic Empire is famous in history. Below are a few lines from one of his speeches:

The main characteristics of Hazrat Uthman’s prose are his choice of clear words, his expression of more emotions through fewer words, and his appreciation of the depth of the subject through quotations from the Qur’an and Hadith.

Hazrat Uthman delivered many lectures during his lifetime and they are an invaluable treasure trove of Arabic prose literature. Thus he contributed to the treasury of Arabic prose literature through his lectures.

Hazrat Ali

Hazrat Ali was the Companion of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), son-in-law, a brave warrior, preacher of Islam, poet and the fourth and last righteous Caliph of Islam. He was born in 599 AD to the famous Quraysh dynasty of Mecca. His father’s name was Abu Talib and his mother’s name was Fatima bint Asad. He lost his father at the age of five and was raised by the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) and his wife Khadijah.

In 610 AD, Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) began to receive the revelation of the Qur’an from Allah and Ali embraced Islam at the age of nine. He was the second man to be initiated into the Islam preached by the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). The first was Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA). The first woman to embrace Islam was Khadijah, the wife of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him).

Hazrat Ali was brought up under the care of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) from an early age. A few days after the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) migrated to Medina in 622 AD, Ali also migrated to Medina with his family and accompanied the Prophet in every battle against the forces opposed to Islam and contributed to the spread of Islam throughout his life.

In 656 CE, Hazrat Uthman, the third righteous Caliph of Islam, was martyred at the hands of rebels and Hazrat Ali became the fourth Caliph of Islam.

During his reign, several battles were fought, such as the Battle of the Camels, the Battle of Siffin, and the Battle of Nahran. Hazrat Ali conducted every battle successfully. Towards the end of his reign, the Islamic Empire was at odds over various issues and law and order deteriorated. Conflict with the provincial ruler Muwabiya began. During this conflict, he was killed in 661 CE by a man named Ibn Mulzam. His death marked the end of the reign of the rightly guided caliphs. 

Contributions to Arabic Language and Literature: Hazrat Ali (RA) was a well-educated person in Arabic and wrote poetry himself but he was not a professional poet.

He contributed to Arabic prose literature through his lectures on various occasions at various times and various royal decrees he wrote.

His prose was elegant, poetic, rhetorical, and extraordinary. A few lines from his speech are quoted below as an example of his prose:

He was also a dictation taker (scribbler) of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) and drafted many treaties and agreements on behalf of the Prophet. During his reign, he had to write many letters and instructions to his subordinates on various matters of governance. He was not a great writer himself, but his speeches, letters, and treaties are an invaluable treasure of Arabic literature. 0 0 0.

The End

Read More: A Brief History of Arabic Literature: Pre-Islamic Period (500 AD-622 AD)

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6. Indian English Poetry Criticism
7. Indian English Poets and Poetry Chief Features
8. Emily Dickinson’s Poetry-A Thematic Study
9. Walt Whitman’s Poetry-A Thematic Study
10. Critical Essays on English Poetry
11. Tawfiq al-Hakim’s Novel: Return of the Spirit-An Analytical Study
12. Tawfiq al-Hakim’s Novel: ‘Yawmiyyat Naib Fil Arayaf’-An Analytical Study
13. Analytical Studies of Some Arabic Short Stories
14. A Brief History of Arabic Literature: Pre-Islamic Period (500 AD-622 AD)
15. A Brief History of Arabic Literature: Early Islamic Period (622 AD-661 AD)
16. A Brief History of Arabic Literature: Early Islamic Period..